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Haemocytometer The counting of blood cells after proper dilution is known as haemocytometry and the instrument used to count the blood cells is called haemocytometer. Using haemocytometry method, red cells, platelets and eosinophils are often counted. Now-a-days it is also used for counting cells of bacteria, yeast, or algae. Haemocytometer – instruments description A haemocytometer consists of a counting chamber, a coverglass for the counting chamber and diluting pipettes. Many types of counting chambers are available. Improved Neubauer and Fauchs Rosenthal are the two most commonly used counting chambers in laboratories. RBCs and WBCs in blood cannot be counted as such. The blood has to be diluted in specific isotonic solutions. RBC, diluting fluid is called Hayem’s solution. For WBC counting Turk’s solution or Toisson solution can be used. The total number of cells is expressed per mm3. The isotonic diluting fluid keeps up the cells intact. In WBC counting, the solution will ly...

Sphygmomanometer A sphygmomanometer is an instrument used to measure blood pressure. The word is derived from the Greek sphygmus (pulse) plus the scientific (physical) term manometer. Arterial blood pressure is the force of pressure, which the blood is exerting on the walls of the blood vessels in which it flows. The blood pressure in the artery varies during the cardiac cycle. The cardiac cycle is defined as the cycle of events that take place during one systole and diastole of the heart. Systole refers to contraction and diastole the relaxation. During ventricular systole, when the left ventricle is forcing blood into the aorta the pressure rises to a peak which is referred to as systolic pressure. During diastole the pressure falls and the lowest value reached is referred to as diastolic pressure. The blood pressure depends partly on the force and volume of blood pumped by the heart and partly on the contraction of the muscles in the walls of the arterioles. Blood pressure changes d...

Medical Lab Techniques In medical therapeutics both diagnosis and treatment are the two important vital aspects. Diagnosis involves identifying or determining the nature of disease while treatment involves the curative aspects in order to eliminate the disease causing agent. The clinical laboratory tests help a physician in correct diagnosis and treatment. Stethoscope A stethoscope is used to hear the heart beat sounds, sound due to inhalation and exhalation of air in the lungs and the respiratory pathways and also the stomach movement. It is a very useful diagnostic tool to help localize problems and to diagnose disease. Stethoscopes are also used along with the sphygmomanometer. The first usable binaural stethoscope was invented in 1855. The modern electronic stethoscopes are high precisioned instruments. These can be used to hear a patient’s heart and lung clearly even in high noisy environments and even through layers of clothing. The electronic stethoscopes also make it possible t...

Edible Fishes Of Tamilnadu I. Fresh Water Fishes Among the freshwater fishes, carps belonging to the order Cypriniformes form significant components of reservoir, riverine and culture fisheries. They have no teeth in any part of their mouths, however pharyngeal teeth may be present. i. Indian Major Carps (‘Kendai’ meen) a) Catla catla (catla) : Catla has a deep body with prominent head, large upturned mouth, non-fringed lips, devoid of barbels and a broad dorsal fin with 14-16 branched rays are the identifying features. It feeds on zooplankton of the pond surface using large gill rakers; however, young ones (15-20 mm) feed on zooplankton and phytoplankton. It grows to a maximum size of 1.8 m (45 kg). It is a fast growing species among the Indian major carps. First year growth is 35-45 cm and about 1.5 – 2.0 kg. It matures in the second year. (Edible Fishes) b) Labeo rohita (Rohu) : Of all the carps, this is considered as the tastiest fish. It has a small and pointed head, terminal smal...

Fish Pond A successful aquaculture practice with a good harvesting is usually due to proper construction preparation and maintenance of the fish pond. Types of fish ponds Within the fish farming pond system there can be different pond components, namely nursery, rearing, production, segregation and breeding or spawning ponds. The area percentage of these ponds in a fish-farming complex can be: Nursery pond – 3% Rearing pond – 11% Production pond – 60% Segregation pond – 1% Breeding pond – 25% Nursery ponds are shallow, while the others are moderately deep. In larger production ponds, water can be maintained at a depth of 2 and 3 metres. A fencing around the fish farm, may be constructed for protection. Preparation of pond Before the culturing of fish, the pond should be conditioned. 1. Conditioning A layer of lime (calcium hydroxide) is spread over the bottom, for two weeks. It removes the acidity of the soil, facilitates desirable geochemical cycles and ki...

Poultry byproducts Poultry and poultry products are highly perishable. Hence, due attention has to be paid to the problems relating to processing, preservation and marketing of poultry and poultry products for the benefit of producers, processors and consumers. In a poultry processing unit, raw materials go as waste in the form of blood, feathers, heads and feet. Hatchery waste includes infertile eggs, dead embryos, and hatchery unstable chicken. Large quantity of wet droppings are also available. Processing and using of this byproducts will not only reduce the cost of poultry production, but also solve the disposal problem and minimize pollution hazard. A great deal of work has been done for processing this by-products into feather-meal, poultry byproducts meal, hatchery byproducts meal, egg shell meal, albumin flake, dried and poultry manure. Poultry diseases : These birds are commonly affected by diseases such as ranikhet, coccidiosis, fowl pox and tick fever. Pisciculture Piscicul...

Farming methods Poultry farming has now become very popular. It is recoginzed as an organised and scientifically based industry with tremendous employment potential. It plays an important part in the rural economy of India. It provides a ready source of income to the cultivator. Besides meat and eggs, poultry supplies feathers and rich manure.The following factors are being taken into consideration for the growth of poultry farming 1) small initial investment 2) availability of quality chicks 3) short generation interval 4) quick, assured and better returns compared to other livestock species 5) availability of trained man power 6) better understanding and knowledge of the improved and scientific methods of feeding 7) management and health control. Rearing involves the following stages:- Selection of eggs, incubation and hatching of eggs, brooding or care of new borns, housing of poultry, feeding of poultry are the important steps in rearing of chickens. (Farming methods) 1. Selection ...

Poultry Breeds The term poultry refers to the rearing and breeding of avian species such as chickens, ducks, turkeys, geese and guinea-fowls which have been domesticated. They are the best converters of feed into animal protein compared to other livestock. Chickens are the most common poultry enterprises. Chickens alone occupy 90% of the total poultry. Breeds There are more than hundred breeds and more varieties of fowls. The fowls are classified based on their utility to man. They are meat type, egg type, dual type and games and ornamental type. Based on their origin there are four major exotic breeds of fowls. They are American breeds, Asiatic breeds, English breeds and Mediterranean breeds. In addition to the above many of the indigenous breeds are also reared. I. American breeds:- ( Poultry Breeds ) Most of the American breed of fowls are dual purpose forms giving meat and egg. These breeds are characterized by yellow feathers, red ear lobes and many of them lay brown-shelled eggs....

Techniques adopted in cattle breeding A. Out breeding : Out breeding is mating of less closely related or unrelated animals.The individuals involved do not have a common ancestor in the preceeding 4-6 generations. (Techniques adopted in cattle breeding) B. Cross breeding : Cross breeding is mating of animals of different breeds. It is valuable as a means of introducing desirable characters into new breed in which they have not existed formerly. The cross breeds exhibit increased growth and vigour by the blend of desirable dominant genes from two breeds in the first generation. (Techniques adopted in cattle breeding) C. Artificial insemination : Artificial insemination is the deposition of male reproductive cells (spermatozoa) in the female reproductive tract by mechanical means rather than by natural mating. The semen is collected from the male by artificial means. The semen is inseminated into the female by placing a portion of it either in a collected or in a diluted form into the ce...

Non Contagious Diseases – Cattle The diseases which does not spread by external modes but are caused by physiological or genetical means is known as non contagious diseases. 1. Milk fever : Milk fever is common in high milk producing cows and buffaloes during the early part of the lactation. It is due to inability of the animal to assimilate calcium from the feed, leading to demineralization in the bone. The serum Ca and P levels become low and the sugar level gets increased. Symptoms : Staggering, loss of appetite, temperature becoming below normal, pulse rate becoming high, restlessness and become inactive. Precaution and first aid : Feeding jaggery along with lime water, few days prior to calving and giving soft nutritious and easily digestible food for a few days after calving prevents milk fever. Cleaning the udder with warm cloth and preventing infection from the floor. Pumping clean air into the udder and massaging are other measures to be adopted. 2. Constipation : Constip...

Common diseases and control in Cattle – Contagious diseases Cattle are subjected to a large number of diseases. Cattle in normal health appear bright, alert and active in their movements with a shiny coat. They also enjoy normal appetite and sleep. Cattle in ill health appear dull, restless and change posture frequently with a drop in milk yield. Contagious diseases : The diseases which spread easily by various modes are called contagious diseases. These diseases are of bacterial or viral origin. The bacterial diseases are anthrax, haemorrhagic septicemia, mastitis and tuberculosis. The viral dieases are cow pox, foot and mouth disease and rinderpest. 1. Anthrax : Anthrax, a bacterial disease is due to b anthracis which causes sudden death in cattle. Symptoms : High temperature (41-41.50c), swelling of the neck, thorax, flanks and lumbar regions which are neither hot nor painful. Blood discharges from natural openings, the affected animal dies in 10 to 36 hrs. Control : Vaccinati...

Exotic breeds of cattle Many milk yeilding breeds of cattle are imported and reared in India. The exotic breeds are successfully crossed with indigenous breeds to obtain cross breeds, which have sufficient desirable characters. European breeds are the first kind of exotic breeds introduced in India about 90 years back. Important ones are short horns Ayreshire, Jersey, Brown swiss, Holstein Friesean, Guernsy and Red Dane. (Exotic breeds of cattle) Jersey : Jersey is one of the oldest dairy breed. It originated from Jersey island adaptable to wide range of climatic conditions and heat. The colour of the breed ranges from white to dark grey, and it is broken and found as patches. Jerseys are nervous and sensitive animals. Jerseys have good udders with large teats. The lactational yield is 4,950 kg with milk fat 5% . The milk has a characteristic yellow colour because of high carotene content. The bulls are vicious than other breed. Cross breeding of Jersey and indigenous Sindhi and Hariy...

Dual purpose breeds & Draught breeds Dual purpose breeds This breed of cattle are meant for both milk yield and draught works. The cows are fairly good milkers and the bullocks are sturdy and are useful in draught works like ploughing the field, transport, cart pulling etc. Important examples are Hariana and Ongole. 1. Ongole : Nellore Dual purpose breeds Origin and distribution :- Ongole tract of Andra Pradesh, Guntur, Narasaraopet, Venukonda, Kandukur taluks of Nellore. Distinguishing characteristics : Dual purpose breeds This breed is a larger form. The matured male weighs about 700Kg and female weighs about 400 Kg. Ongole breed is usually white in colour with grey marking. Males are dark grey at extremities. Hump is well developed and erect. The horns are stumpy and they grow outwards and inwards. Bullocks are powerful and suitable for cart and road work but are not fast. Productions : Cows are good yielders, yielding from 1700 kg to 3500kg per lactation. Dual purpose breeds Dr...

Milch breeds (or) Dairy breeds The cows of this group are high milk yielders with extended lactation periods. The bullocks are of poor draught qualities. These cattle are well built with strong limbs. e.g Deoni, Gir, Sindhi and Sahiwal. The cows in domestic usage for milk are non-descriptive types. (Milch breeds) 1. Sindhi (Red Sindhi, Red Karachi) : Origin and distribution : The home of this breed is Karachi and Hyderabad. Distinguishing characters : Medium size and compact body. Thick horns emerging laterally and ending in blunt points. They have intelligent facial expression. Deep dark red colour. Bulls are darker than the cow. They have hump and the udder is large with medium sized teats. The animals are docile and quiet. Bullocks are steady workers, suited for road and field work. Sindhi cows are hardy and have high degree of resistant to heat and ticks. These are the most economical milk producers among the dairy breeds of India. Milk production :- Yields as high as 5,443 kg per ...